Same Fight, Different Bodies How Your Dog's Immune System Compares to Yours — And Why Age Changes Everything
"Your dog ages roughly 7 times faster than you do. Their immune system ages just as fast — and the consequences are just as serious."
Table of Contents
Introduction: The Invisible Shield We Take for Granted
Part One: The Shared Blueprint
Part Two: Where Dogs and Humans Diverge
Part Three: Understanding Immunosenescence in Dogs
Part Five: Warning Signs of Immune Decline
Part Six: Proactive Immune Support for Aging Pets
Part Seven: The Bigger Picture
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Introduction: The Invisible Shield We Take for Granted
Every single day, your immune system wages a silent war. Bacteria, viruses, parasites, rogue cancer cells — your body's defense network identifies, targets, and destroys them before you ever feel a thing. You don't think about it. You don't have to. It just works.
Your dog's immune system does the same thing. Right now, as your dog naps on the couch or chases a ball in the backyard, their immune cells are patrolling, scanning, and neutralizing threats with remarkable precision. In many ways, their immune system looks a lot like yours — built on the same evolutionary blueprint, powered by the same types of cells, and governed by the same fundamental rules.
But here's what most pet owners don't realize: that invisible shield weakens with age. In humans, we call this process immunosenescence — the gradual, scientifically documented decline of immune function that comes with getting older. In dogs and cats, the exact same process occurs. And because our pets age so much faster than we do, the window of vulnerability arrives sooner, progresses faster, and often goes unnoticed until it's too late.
This article is about understanding that process — the biology behind it, the parallels between human and canine immunity, and most importantly, what you can do right now to support your aging pet's immune health before problems arise.
Part One: The Shared Blueprint — How Human and Dog Immune Systems Are Built the Same Way
To understand how aging affects your dog's immune system, you first need to understand how it works in the first place. And the best place to start is with a surprising truth: your immune system and your dog's immune system are remarkably similar.
Dogs and humans are both vertebrates, and the vertebrate immune system has been conserved across hundreds of millions of years of evolution. The core architecture — the cells, the organs, the signaling molecules — is essentially the same.
The Three Layers of Defense
Both humans and dogs rely on a three-tiered immune defense system:
1. Physical Barriers (The First Line of Defense): The skin, mucous membranes, saliva, tears, and the lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts form the body's first wall of protection. In dogs, the fur adds an additional physical layer. These barriers don't just block pathogens mechanically — they also contain antimicrobial compounds that kill invaders on contact.
2. The Innate Immune System (The Rapid Response Force): When a pathogen breaches the physical barriers, the innate immune system activates within minutes to hours. This is the non-specific, generalized response — it doesn't care what the invader is, only that it doesn't belong. Neutrophils, macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, and dendritic cells rush to the site of infection, engulf pathogens, trigger inflammation, and begin sounding the alarm for the next layer of defense.
Research published in Scientific Reports (2024) found that [1] canine macrophages are significantly more responsive to activation by interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) than human macrophages — suggesting that dogs may rely more heavily on macrophage-driven innate responses as a compensatory immune strategy.
3. The Adaptive Immune System (The Precision Strike Force): This is where the real sophistication lies. The adaptive immune system learns. When it encounters a specific pathogen, it creates a tailored response using T cells and B cells, and then stores the memory of that encounter so future responses are faster and more powerful. This is the basis of vaccination.
Research from the University of Pennsylvania's School of Veterinary Medicine has noted that unlike rodents, [2] the development of the canine immune system shares many similarities to that of the human, including the fact that the immune system is fully developed before birth in both species.
The Key Immune Organs: Shared Architecture
Both species rely on the same core immune organs:
• Bone marrow: The birthplace of all immune cells (B cells, T cells, neutrophils, macrophages)
• Thymus: The "school" where T cells mature and learn to distinguish self from non-self
• Spleen: A filtering organ that traps blood-borne pathogens and activates immune responses
• Lymph nodes: Surveillance stations distributed throughout the body
• Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT): The immune tissue lining the digestive tract
This last point deserves special attention. Research suggests that 70–90% of a dog's immune system is located in the gut — making the gastrointestinal microbiome a central pillar of canine immune health. This mirrors what we know about human immunity, where the gut microbiome plays a critical regulatory role in immune function, inflammation, and even mental health.
Part Two: Where Dogs and Humans Diverge — Key Functional Differences
While the architecture is shared, the way these systems operate reveals some fascinating differences shaped by millions of years of divergent evolution.
T Cell Behavior: Humans Are More Aggressive, Dogs Compensate Differently
A landmark 2024 study published in Scientific Reports (Chow et al., Colorado State University) [1] provided the most detailed direct comparison of canine and human immune responses to date. The findings were illuminating:
• Human T cells displayed a marked Th1 bias — a more aggressive, pro-inflammatory response — and produced significantly more IFN-γ when activated.
• Canine T cells were less transcriptionally active overall, producing significantly less IFN-γ than their human counterparts.
• Canine macrophages were significantly more responsive to IFN-γ activation than human macrophages, showing higher co-stimulatory molecule expression and TNF-α production.
The study identified 515 significantly upregulated genes and 360 significantly downregulated immune genes shared between activated canine and human T cells, along with 33 immune pathways shared between the two species — underscoring just how similar the underlying biology truly is.
Autoimmune Disease: Humans Are More Vulnerable
Humans are significantly more prone to conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, and type 1 diabetes — diseases where the immune system attacks the body's own tissues. While dogs can develop autoimmune conditions, they appear to do so less frequently. Some immunologists theorize this is a consequence of the human immune system's heightened T cell activity — a more aggressive system is also a more error-prone one.
Gut Immunity: The Dog's Superpower
The extraordinary concentration of immune tissue in the canine gut — that 70–90% figure — means that what your dog eats directly shapes how well their immune system functions. A disrupted gut microbiome doesn't just cause digestive problems; it compromises the entire immune defense network. This is why nutrition-based immune support is not just a wellness trend for dogs — it's grounded in the fundamental biology of how their immune systems are organized.
Part Three: The Clock Is Ticking — Understanding Immunosenescence in Dogs
Immunosenescence (from the Latin senescere, meaning "to grow old") is the term scientists use to describe the progressive deterioration of immune function that occurs with age. A comprehensive 2025 narrative review published in the Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine (McKenzie, Loyal Veterinary Medicine) [3] confirms that the same process occurs in dogs and cats, following remarkably similar patterns.
1. Thymic Involution: The Root of the Problem
The thymus is the organ where T cells mature and are "educated" — taught to recognize the body's own cells and to respond to foreign invaders. In both humans and dogs, the thymus begins to shrink (involute) after puberty, and this process accelerates with age. As the thymus shrinks, it produces fewer naive T cells — the fresh, untrained cells capable of responding to new threats.
A 2018 study published in Developmental and Comparative Immunology (Holder et al., Royal Veterinary College) [4] examined T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire diversity in Labrador Retrievers aged 0–3 years versus 10–13 years. Older dogs showed significantly more skewed T cell receptor distributions, indicating reduced diversity in the T cell repertoire — exactly what you'd expect from a shrinking thymus.
2. The Naive-to-Memory T Cell Shift
In young animals, the immune system maintains a healthy balance between naive T cells (ready to respond to new threats) and memory T cells (primed to respond to previously encountered threats). With age, this balance shifts dramatically toward memory T cells. An aging dog's immune system becomes increasingly good at fighting old enemies but progressively worse at handling new ones — including novel infections and cancer cells.
3. Inflammaging: The Slow Burn That Damages Everything
Alongside the decline in protective immune function, aging also brings something paradoxical: more inflammation, not less. Scientists call this "inflammaging" — a state of chronic, low-grade, systemic inflammation that persists even in the absence of active infection. Inflammatory cytokines like IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α remain chronically elevated, creating a background state of inflammation that damages tissues, accelerates cellular aging, and raises the risk of numerous age-associated diseases.
The 2025 McKenzie review [3] confirms that similar patterns of inflammaging occur in dogs, contributing to osteoarthritis, cognitive dysfunction syndrome (canine dementia), kidney disease, and cancer — all of which become dramatically more common in senior dogs.
4. Reduced Vaccine Efficacy
Older dogs mount weaker, shorter-lived immune responses to vaccination than younger dogs. A senior dog who received their booster vaccines on schedule may not be as protected as their vaccination record suggests. Their aging immune system simply cannot generate the same robust antibody response it once could.
When Does Immunosenescence Begin in Dogs?
A 2025 study published in Scientific Reports (McMahon et al.) [5] confirmed measurable immune changes in dogs that parallel those seen in aging humans. Immune aging begins in middle age and accelerates rapidly. As a general guideline:
• Small breeds (under 20 lbs): Senior status around 10–12 years
• Medium breeds (20–50 lbs): Senior status around 8–10 years
• Large breeds (50–90 lbs): Senior status around 7–8 years
• Giant breeds (over 90 lbs): Senior status around 5–6 years
Immune decline begins well before your dog looks or acts "old." By the time you notice the gray muzzle, the slower gait, the reluctance to jump — the immune system has already been declining for years.
Part Four: The Human Parallel — Why This Science Matters for Both Species
Dogs serve as a powerful translational model for human aging research. Unlike laboratory rodents, dogs share our environment, develop many of the same age-related diseases, and age on a compressed timeline that makes longitudinal research more practical. The parallels are striking:
The strategies that support immune health in aging humans are increasingly being validated in dogs. And the window for intervention is the same in both species: the earlier you start, the better the outcomes.
As both humans and dogs age, their immune systems undergo a progressive and well-documented process of decline known as immunosenescence. This phenomenon encompasses a broad range of structural and functional changes that collectively reduce the body's ability to mount effective immune responses, resist infection, and suppress malignant cell growth. Remarkably, the parallels between human and canine immunosenescence are striking, making dogs a valuable comparative model for understanding age-related immune dysfunction in mammals.
Thymic Involution
One of the earliest and most consistent hallmarks of immunosenescence in humans is thymic involution — the gradual shrinkage and functional decline of the thymus gland, which is responsible for producing mature T lymphocytes. In humans, this process begins shortly after puberty and accelerates progressively with advancing age, resulting in a dramatically reduced output of naive T cells over time. Dogs follow the same pattern of thymic involution, with the gland undergoing comparable structural regression as the animal ages. This shared trajectory underscores the evolutionary conservation of thymic biology across mammalian species and highlights the thymus as a central driver of immune aging in both humans and their canine companions.
Decline of Naive T Cells
Closely linked to thymic involution is the progressive decline in circulating naive T cells — those lymphocytes that have not yet encountered a foreign antigen and are therefore capable of responding to novel pathogens. In humans, this decline is well-established and contributes significantly to the reduced capacity of elderly individuals to respond to new infections or vaccines. A similar reduction in naive T cell populations has been documented in aging Labrador Retrievers, one of the most extensively studied dog breeds in comparative immunology. The convergence of findings across species suggests that naive T cell depletion is a fundamental feature of mammalian immune aging, rather than a phenomenon unique to humans.
Inflammaging: Chronic Low-Grade Inflammation
Alongside the decline in adaptive immune function, aging is also associated with a paradoxical increase in baseline inflammatory activity — a state referred to as inflammaging. In humans, this chronic low-grade inflammation is thought to arise from the accumulation of cellular damage, the persistence of senescent cells, and the dysregulation of immune signaling pathways. Rather than providing protection, this smoldering inflammatory state contributes to a range of age-associated conditions, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegeneration, and metabolic disorders. Inflammaging has been confirmed in senior dogs and cats as well, indicating that this maladaptive inflammatory response is not exclusive to humans but is instead a conserved feature of aging in companion animals. The recognition of inflammaging in veterinary species opens new avenues for cross-species research into anti-inflammatory interventions.
Decline in Vaccine Response
The practical consequences of immunosenescence are perhaps most evident in the diminished response to vaccination observed in older individuals. In humans, it is well-documented that elderly patients generate weaker and shorter-lived immune responses to vaccines, including those for influenza, pneumococcal disease, and COVID-19. This reduced vaccine efficacy leaves older adults more vulnerable to infectious diseases despite immunization. The same phenomenon has been confirmed in senior and geriatric dogs, where aging animals demonstrate attenuated antibody responses following routine vaccination. These findings have important implications for veterinary preventive care, suggesting that vaccination schedules and formulations may need to be adapted for older dogs to ensure adequate protection.
CD8+ T Cell Dysfunction
Among the various cellular changes that characterize immunosenescence, dysfunction of CD8+ cytotoxic T cells stands out as a major feature in humans. These cells play a critical role in eliminating virus-infected cells and tumor cells, and their progressive functional impairment with age contributes to increased susceptibility to both infection and cancer. In aging humans, CD8+ T cells often exhibit signs of exhaustion, reduced proliferative capacity, and altered cytokine production. Comparable dysfunction of CD8+ T cells has been documented in aging dogs, reinforcing the value of the canine model for studying cytotoxic immune decline. Understanding the mechanisms underlying CD8+ T cell exhaustion in both species may ultimately inform therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring immune surveillance in older individuals.
Increased Cancer Risk with Age
The cumulative effect of immunosenescence — reduced naive T cell output, impaired cytotoxic function, chronic inflammation, and weakened vaccine responses — creates an environment in which malignant cells are less effectively detected and eliminated. In humans, cancer risk rises sharply with age, and the majority of cancer diagnoses occur in individuals over the age of 60. This increased susceptibility is widely attributed, at least in part, to the age-related decline in immune surveillance. In dogs, the parallel is equally striking: cancer is the leading cause of death in senior dogs, accounting for nearly half of all deaths in animals over the age of ten. The shared burden of age-associated cancer in humans and dogs underscores the importance of studying immunosenescence across species and developing interventions that could benefit both human patients and their animal companions.
The comparison of immunosenescence between humans and dogs reveals a remarkably consistent pattern of age-related immune decline across both species. From thymic involution and naive T cell loss to inflammaging, impaired vaccine responses, CD8+ T cell dysfunction, and elevated cancer risk, the biological processes of immune aging appear to be deeply conserved in mammals. These parallels not only validate the dog as a meaningful model for human immunogerontology research but also highlight the shared vulnerability of aging individuals — human and canine alike — to the consequences of a declining immune system. Future research aimed at understanding and mitigating immunosenescence holds promise for improving health outcomes and quality of life in both species.
Part Five: The Warning Signs — How to Recognize Immune Decline in Your Aging Pet
Because immunosenescence is a gradual, invisible process, many pet owners don't recognize it until their dog is already dealing with serious health consequences. Here are the warning signs that your aging pet's immune system may be struggling:
• Increased frequency of infections: More frequent ear infections, skin infections, urinary tract infections, or respiratory illnesses than in younger years.
• Slower recovery from illness: Infections that used to resolve quickly now linger. Wounds heal more slowly.
• Unexplained weight loss or muscle wasting: Chronic inflammation (inflammaging) accelerates muscle breakdown and metabolic dysfunction.
• New or worsening allergies: Immune dysregulation can cause both under-response (to pathogens) and over-response (to harmless allergens).
• Lethargy and reduced activity: Persistent fatigue can signal chronic inflammation or immune dysfunction.
• Digestive changes: Altered gut microbiome composition often manifests as changes in stool consistency, frequency, or digestive comfort.
• Lumps, bumps, and growths: Cancer is the leading cause of death in dogs over 10 years old, and immunosenescence is a significant contributing factor.
Part Six: What You Can Do — Proactive Immune Support for Aging Pets
Immunosenescence is not inevitable in its severity. While you cannot stop your dog from aging, you can absolutely influence how their immune system ages. Several strategies have strong evidence behind them.
1. Nutrition: The Foundation of Immune Health
Given that 70–90% of a dog's immune system resides in the gut, diet is arguably the single most powerful lever you have for supporting immune health. Senior dogs benefit from:
• High-quality, bioavailable protein to support immune cell production and muscle maintenance
• Omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) to modulate inflammation and support cell membrane integrity
• Antioxidants (vitamins C and E, selenium, beta-carotene) to combat oxidative stress
• Prebiotic fiber to nourish beneficial gut bacteria and support the gut-immune axis
2. Regular Veterinary Care and Monitoring
Senior dogs should see a veterinarian at least twice yearly. Blood panels, urinalysis, and physical examinations can detect early signs of immune dysfunction, organ stress, and inflammation before they become serious. Discuss your dog's vaccine schedule with your vet — given the reduced vaccine efficacy in senior dogs, your vet may recommend adjusted protocols.
3. Exercise: The Natural Anti-Inflammatory
Regular, moderate exercise has been shown to reduce chronic inflammation, support healthy immune cell circulation, and maintain muscle mass in aging animals. Daily walks, gentle play, and low-impact activities like swimming are ideal for senior dogs.
4. Stress Reduction
Chronic psychological stress suppresses immune function in both humans and dogs through the same hormonal pathways (cortisol, in particular, is a potent immunosuppressant). Senior dogs benefit from stable routines, positive social interaction, mental enrichment, and minimizing unnecessary stressors.
5. Targeted Immune Supplementation: Clinically Studied Immune Modulators
As our understanding of immunosenescence has grown, so has the research into specific natural compounds that can modulate immune function, reduce inflammaging, and support the aging immune system's ability to respond to threats. Two ingredients in particular have accumulated impressive bodies of clinical evidence:
Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus): The Ancient Adaptogen with Modern Science
Astragalus is a root herb used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for over 2,000 years, but its immune-modulating properties are now backed by rigorous modern research — including studies specifically conducted in dogs.
Astragalus contains several bioactive compounds, most notably astragalus polysaccharides (APS) and astragalosides, which have been shown to:
• Stimulate T cell proliferation and activity — directly addressing one of the core deficits of immunosenescence
• Enhance natural killer (NK) cell function — supporting the innate immune system's cancer surveillance capacity
• Modulate cytokine production — helping to regulate the inflammatory signaling that drives inflammaging
• Support telomere maintenance — astragalosides have been studied for their ability to activate telomerase, potentially slowing cellular aging at its most fundamental level
A study published in Procedia in Vaccinology (2010) [6] specifically examined the effects of Astragalus polysaccharides on immune cells and cytokines in immunosuppressed dogs, showing measurable improvements in immune cell populations and cytokine profiles. A 2023 study [7] examined APS supplementation in Beagle dogs, finding beneficial effects on hematology, immune response, and oxidative stress status.
Larch Arabinogalactan: The Prebiotic Immune Activator
Larch Arabinogalactan (LA) is a polysaccharide extracted from the Western Larch tree (Larix occidentalis). It functions as both a prebiotic (feeding beneficial gut bacteria) and a direct immune modulator (activating immune cells independently of the gut).
• Prebiotic activity: LA is fermented by beneficial gut bacteria, particularly Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species, increasing their populations and supporting the gut-immune axis.
• Direct immune activation: LA activates macrophages, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells through pattern recognition receptors, triggering a controlled immune activation response.
• Anti-inflammatory modulation: Unlike compounds that simply "boost" immune activity, LA modulates immune responses — supporting protective immunity while helping to regulate excessive inflammation.
A landmark study published in The Journal of Nutrition (2002, Gries et al.) [8] specifically examined oral administration of arabinogalactan in dogs, finding measurable changes in immune cell activity and gut microbiome composition.
A-Plus Naturals: Daily Preventative Immune Support Designed for Aging Pets
A-Plus Naturals is formulated specifically for aging dogs and cats — animals whose immune systems are already on the downward slope of immunosenescence, whether their owners realize it or not. Rather than waiting for illness to strike and then scrambling to respond, A-Plus Naturals is designed as a daily preventative — a consistent, science-backed foundation of immune support that works with your pet's biology every single day.
The formula centers on two clinically studied immune modulators:
• Astragalus — to support T cell function, NK cell activity, and healthy inflammatory regulation, directly addressing the core cellular deficits of immunosenescence.
• Larch Arabinogalactan — to nourish the gut microbiome, activate innate immune cells, and provide the prebiotic foundation that 70–90% of your dog's immune system depends on.
Who is A-Plus Naturals for?
• Dogs and cats entering their senior years (even if they still seem healthy and energetic)
• Pets who seem to get sick more frequently than they used to
• Animals recovering from illness, surgery, or other immune stressors
• Pets on long-term medications that may affect immune function
• Any aging pet whose owner wants to be proactive rather than reactive about immune health
The best time to support your pet's immune system is before it fails, not after.
Part Seven: The Bigger Picture — Aging Is Not a Disease, But It Requires Attention
There is a tendency in our culture — both in human medicine and in veterinary medicine — to treat aging as something that simply happens, something to be managed reactively rather than supported proactively. We wait for the diagnosis, then we treat the disease.
But immunosenescence teaches us something different. It teaches us that the vulnerability to disease in old age is not random bad luck — it is the predictable, measurable consequence of a biological process that begins years before any diagnosis is made. The cancer that strikes a 12-year-old Labrador didn't appear overnight. The chronic kidney disease in a 14-year-old cat didn't emerge from nowhere. These conditions develop in the context of years of gradually declining immune surveillance, rising chronic inflammation, and a gut microbiome that has slowly shifted away from health.
The good news is that this process is not a cliff — it's a slope. And slopes can be influenced.
Every walk you take with your senior dog, every high-quality meal you provide, every vet visit you don't skip, every supplement you give consistently — these are not small things. They are the daily inputs that determine the trajectory of your pet's immune aging. They are the difference between a dog who develops cancer at 10 and one who remains vital and healthy at 14.
You cannot give your pet more years. But you can absolutely give them better years — and more of them.
Conclusion: The Science Is Clear. The Choice Is Yours.
The immune systems of humans and dogs are built on the same ancient blueprint. They share the same cells, the same organs, the same fundamental logic. They age in the same ways, through the same mechanisms, toward the same vulnerabilities.
The science of immunosenescence — once confined to human gerontology research — is now firmly established in veterinary medicine. We know that aging dogs experience thymic involution, naive T cell decline, CD8+ T cell dysfunction, inflammaging, reduced vaccine efficacy, and gut microbiome dysbiosis. We know these changes begin in middle age and accelerate rapidly. We know they increase vulnerability to infection, cancer, and chronic disease.
And we know that targeted, science-backed interventions — including clinically studied immune modulators like Astragalus and Larch Arabinogalactan — can support the aging immune system's ability to function, modulate inflammation, and maintain the gut-immune axis that is so central to canine health.
A-Plus Naturals was created for this moment — for the pet owner who looks at their graying dog and thinks, I want to do everything I can. It is not a miracle cure. It is something better: a daily commitment to your pet's immune health, grounded in real science, designed for the real biology of aging.
Your dog gives you everything. Give their immune system the support it deserves.
This article is intended for educational purposes and does not constitute veterinary medical advice. Always consult with a licensed veterinarian before starting any new supplement regimen for your pet.
References
[1] Chow, L., Wheat, W., Ramirez, D., Impastato, R., & Dow, S. (2024). Direct comparison of canine and human immune responses using transcriptomic and functional analyses. Scientific Reports. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-50340-9
[2] Felsburg, P.J. (2002). Overview of immune system development in the dog: comparison with humans. Human & Experimental Toxicology, 21(9-10), 487–492. https://doi.org/10.1191/0960327102ht286oa
[3] McKenzie, B.A. (2025). Immunosenescence and Inflammaging in Dogs and Cats: A Narrative Review. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 39(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.70159
[4] Holder, A., Mirczuk, S.M., Fowkes, R.C., Palmer, D.B., Aspinall, R., & Catchpole, B. (2018). Perturbation of the T cell receptor repertoire occurs with increasing age in dogs. Developmental and Comparative Immunology, 79, 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dci.2017.10.020
[5] McMahon, J.E., Graves, J.L., Tovar, A.P., et al. (2025). Translational immune and metabolic markers of aging in dogs. Scientific Reports. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-99349-2
[6] Effects of Astragalus Polysaccharides on Associated Immune Cells and Cytokines in Immunosuppressive Dogs. (2010). Procedia in Vaccinology, 2(1), 26–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.provac.2010.03.006
[7] Astragalus polysaccharide (APS) supplement in beagle dogs after castration: Effects on haematology, immune response, and oxidative stress status. (2023). PMC/NCBI. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9857013/
[8] Gries, C.M., et al. (2002). Oral Administration of Arabinogalactan Affects Immune Status and Fecal Microbial Populations in Dogs. The Journal of Nutrition, 132(3), 478S–482S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/132.3.478S
[9] Negative Influence of Aging on Differentiation and Proliferation of CD8+ T-Cells in Dogs. (2023). PMC/NCBI. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10534501/
[10] Effect of Aging on the Immune Response to Core Vaccines in Senior and Geriatric Dogs. (2023). PMC/NCBI. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10385316/
